Internet address: http://stats.bls.gov/newsrels.htm Technical information: (202) 691-7409 USDL 00-119 For release: 10:00 A.M. EDT Media contact: 691-5902 Tuesday, April 25, 2000 NUMBER OF JOBS HELD, LABOR MARKET ACTIVITY, AND EARNINGS GROWTH OVER TWO DECADES: RESULTS FROM A LONGITUDINAL SURVEY The average person in the U.S. holds 9.2 jobs from age 18 to age 34, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics of the U.S. Department of Labor. More than half of these jobs were held between the ages of 18 and 24. These findings are from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 (NLSY79), a survey of 9,964 young men and women who were born between 1957 and 1964. These respondents were 14 to 22 years of age when first interviewed in 1979 and 33 to 41 when interviewed most recently in 1998. The survey spans nearly two decades and provides information on work and nonwork experiences, training, schooling, income and assets, health conditions, and other characteristics. The information provided by respondents, who were interviewed annually from 1979 to 1994 and biennially since 1994, can be considered representative of all men and women born in the late 1950s and early 1960s and living in the United States in 1978. This release of the latest data from the longitudinal survey focuses on four aspects of labor market behavior: number of jobs held, labor force participation, earnings growth, and promotions. Highlights from the survey include: --Individuals born between 1957 and 1964 held an average of 5.6 jobs while ages 18 to 24. The average fell to 3.0 jobs while ages 25 to 29 and to 2.4 jobs while ages 30 to 34. Since jobs that span age groups were counted once in each age group, the overall average number of jobs held from age 18 to age 34 (9.2 jobs) is less than the sum of the number of jobs across the individual age groups. --The average individual was employed during 75 percent of the weeks occurring from age 18 to age 34. Generally, men spent a larger percent of weeks employed than did women (83 percent versus 68 percent) and a smaller percent of weeks out of the labor force (11 percent versus 27 percent). --Over 87 percent of both men and women experienced at least one period of unemployment from age 18 to age 34, with the percent of individuals reporting an unemployment spell decreasing sharply with age. --The annual percent growth in real hourly earnings was fastest during the ages of 18 to 24. Growth rates in real hourly earnings were always higher for those who obtained more education. --Over 24 percent of employed individuals ages 30 to 40 received a promotion between 1995 and 1997. - 2 - Number of Jobs Held Individuals held an average of 9.2 jobs from age 18 to age 34, with over half of the jobs being held before age 25. On average, men held 9.6 jobs and women held 8.8 jobs from age 18 to age 34. Men held 5.8 jobs from age 18 to age 24, but only 2.6 jobs from age 30 to age 34. The reduction in the number of jobs held was similar for women. (See table 1.) For women, blacks, and Hispanics, those who obtained a college degree usually held more jobs than those who ended their education with a high school diploma or less. College-educated women held more jobs than women without a college degree and, on average, held more jobs than college- educated men. Differences in the number of jobs held also are apparent between race and ethnic groups. From age 18 to age 34, whites held more jobs than either blacks or Hispanics. The difference is most pronounced at younger ages; whites held 5.8 jobs from age 18 to age 24, compared with 4.7 jobs for blacks and 5.0 jobs for Hispanics. These racial differences nearly disappeared at older ages; whites and Hispanics ages 30 to 34 held an average of 2.4 jobs, and blacks in that age group held 2.5 jobs. Percent of Weeks Employed, Unemployed, and Not in the Labor Force On average, individuals were employed during 75 percent of all the weeks occurring from age 18 to age 34, were unemployed 5 percent of the weeks, and were not in the labor force 19 percent of the weeks. The amount of time spent out of the labor force differs greatly by education, especially among women. Female high school dropouts spent 48 percent of the weeks out of the labor force from age 18 to age 34. By comparison, female high school graduates spent 28 percent of the weeks out of the labor force, and female college graduates spent 20 percent of the weeks out of the labor force. Among men, high school dropouts and college graduates spent a similar percent of weeks out of the labor force from age 18 to age 34 (14 and 15 percent, respectively). Male high school dropouts spent a much larger percent of weeks unemployed than did college graduates. (See table 2.) Labor force activity also is related to age, with the percent of weeks employed increasing and the percent of weeks unemployed or not in the labor force falling as individuals grow older. While all race and ethnic groups had increasing labor force participation with age, the age differential for blacks was most pronounced. From age 18 to age 24, blacks, on average, spent 39 percent of the weeks employed, 17 percent of the weeks unemployed, and 43 percent of the weeks out of the labor force. By comparison, from age 25 to age 29, blacks, on average, spent 70 percent of the weeks employed, 9 percent of the weeks unemployed, and 21 percent of the weeks out of the labor force. (See table 3.) - 3 - Unemployment The percent of men and women reporting at least one unemployment spell from age 18 to age 34 was similar except among high school dropouts. In every age range, female high school dropouts were less likely than male dropouts to have experienced an unemployment spell. (See table 4.) Blacks were more likely than whites or Hispanics to have experienced an unemployment spell, regardless of age or educational attainment. Over 94 percent of blacks reported at least one unemployment spell from age 18 to age 34, compared with 86 percent of whites and 90 percent of Hispanics. Among all three race-ethnic groups, the likelihood of experiencing a spell of unemployment decreased as age and educational attainment rose, but a greater percent of college-educated blacks reported at least one unemployment spell from age 30 to age 34 than did their white or Hispanic counterparts. Percent Growth in Real Earnings The real earnings of individuals increased more rapidly at young ages compared with older ages. From the ages of 18 to 24, real hourly earnings grew an average of 6.6 percent per year. The earnings growth rate slowed to 4.0 percent annually from age 25 to age 29, then to 2.4 percent annually from age 30 to age 34. In every age category, growth rates in real hourly earnings always were higher for those with more education. (See table 7.) Promotions Over 24 percent of employed individuals ages 30 to 40 reported receiving a promotion during the 1995 to 1997 period. Overall, men were slightly more likely than women to have received a promotion (26 percent versus 23 percent). Promotion rates were similar among men and women with a high school diploma or less education, but, among college graduates, men were considerably more likely than women to have received a promotion (36 percent versus 24 percent). (See table 8.) Promotion rates were similar for whites, blacks, and Hispanics. Among high school dropouts, whites were more likely than blacks or Hispanics to have received a promotion, but among employed persons with a high school diploma or more education, the differences in promotion rates among the three race-ethnic groups virtually disappeared. Explanatory Note The estimates in this release were obtained using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 (NLSY79). This survey is conducted by the Center for Human Resource Research at The Ohio State University and the National Opinion Research Center at the University of Chicago under the direction and sponsorship of the U.S. Department of Labor's Bureau of Labor Statistics. Sample The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 is a nationally representative sample of 12,686 young men and women who were 14 to 22 years of age when first surveyed in 1979. This sample of over 12,000 youths was initially composed of three subsamples: a cross-sectional sample designed to be representative of the noninstitutionalized, civilian segment of young people living in the U.S. in 1978 and born between Jan. 1, 1957, and Dec. 31, 1964; a supplemental sample of youths designed to oversample noninstitutionalized, civilian Hispanic, black, and economically disadvantaged white youths living in the U.S. and born between Jan. 1, 1957, and Dec. 31, 1964; and a military oversample of youths born between Jan. 1, 1957, and Dec. 31, 1964, and enlisted in one of the four branches of active military forces. In 1985, the military oversample was discontinued, and in 1991, the disadvantaged white youths were dropped from the supplemental sample. As a result, the NLSY79 sample now contains 9,964 individuals. Individuals were surveyed annually until 1994 and are now surveyed every other year. In 1998, 8,399 individuals responded to the survey, for a retention rate of 84 percent. Only these individuals are included in the estimates in this release. All results are weighted using the 1998 survey weights that correct for the oversampling, interview nonresponse, and permanent attrition from the survey. When weighted, the data are representative of all persons living in the U.S. in 1978 and born between 1957 and 1964. Not represented by the survey are U.S. immigrants who were born between 1957 and 1964 and moved to the United States after 1978. Work History Data The total number of jobs that people hold during their work life is an easy concept to understand but a difficult one to measure. Reliable estimates require a survey that interviews the same people over the course of their entire work life and also keeps track of all the jobs they ever held. The NLSY79 tracks the number of jobs that people have held, but the respondents in this survey are still relatively young, ages 33 to 41 in 1998, and have many years of work life ahead of them. As the cohort continues to age, however, more complete information will become available. A unique feature of the NLSY79 is that it collects the beginning and ending dates of all jobs held by a respondent so that a longitudinal history can be constructed of each respondent's work experiences. The NLSY79 work history data provide a week-by-week work record of each respondent from Jan. 1, 1978, through the most recent survey date. These data contain information on the respondent's labor force status each week, the usual hours worked per week at all jobs, and earnings for all jobs. If a respondent worked at more than one job in any week, hours and earnings are obtained for up to four additional jobs. When a respondent who missed one or more consecutive survey rounds is interviewed again, he is asked to provide information about all time since the last interview. Interaction Between Time and Age in a Longitudinal Survey Because the NLSY79 is a longitudinal survey, meaning the same people are surveyed over time, the ages of the respondents change with each survey round. It is important to keep in mind this inherent link between the calendar years and the ages of the respondents. For example, table 7 reports earnings growth from age 25 to age 29. The youngest respondents in the sample (birth year 1964) were these ages during 1989-93, whereas the oldest respondents (birth year 1957) were these ages during 1982-86. As with age, the educational attainment of individuals may change from year to year. In the tables and analysis presented in this report, educational attainment is defined as of the 1998 survey. This definition is used even when data on age and educational attainment are presented together. For example, table 1 reports the number of jobs held during different age categories. Suppose that a respondent had completed a bachelor's degree at age 27. That respondent would be included in the "Bachelor's degree or more" educational category in all age categories shown on the table, even though he or she did not have a bachelor's degree at any point from age 18 to age 24. Definitions Job. A job is defined as an uninterrupted period of work with a particular employer. Jobs are therefore employer-based, not position- based. If a respondent indicates that he or she left a job but in a subsequent survey returns to the same job, it is counted as a new job. For example, if an individual worked in a retail establishment during the summer, quit at the end of summer to return to school, and then re- sumed working for the same employer the following spring, this sequence would count as two jobs, rather than one. For self-employed workers, each new job is defined by the individuals themselves. Unemployment. If respondents indicate a gap between employers, they are asked how many of those weeks they spent searching for employment or on layoff. For that number of weeks, they are considered unemployed. For the remaining weeks, they are coded as not in the labor force. No probing for intensity of job search is done. An unemployment spell is defined as one or more consecutive weeks of unemployment. Usual earnings. Respondents can report earnings over any time frame (hour, day, week, month, year). For those who do not report an hourly wage, one is constructed using usual hours worked over that time frame. Wages greater than $100 per hour and less than $1 per hour were not included in the analysis of earnings growth because the reported earnings levels were almost certainly in error. For the same reason, individuals who had real earnings growth greater than 100 percent were not included in the analysis. These exclusions from the analysis affected 279 respondents. Promotions. Respondents are asked a series of questions about promotions received from their current employer. In particular, respondents are asked if they had been promoted by their current employer since they began working for that employer or since the date of the last interview, whichever is more recent. These statistics are self-reported by the respondents. Race and ethnic groups. The race and ethnic categories used in the NLSY79 are different from those used in other BLS surveys. In other BLS surveys, estimates usually are published for whites, blacks, and persons of Hispanic origin, but these groups are not mutually exclusive because Hispanics are considered to be an ethnic group rather than a racial group. Hispanics therefore can be included in any racial category. In the NLSY79, the estimates are reported for three mutually exclusive groups: non- Hispanic whites, non-Hispanic blacks, and Hispanics. Although these three groups are mutually exclusive, they are not exhaustive. American Indians, Alaskan natives, and Asians and Pacific Islanders are included in the totals but are not shown separately because of the small numbers of sample members in these racial categories. Information in this release will be made available to sensory impaired individuals upon request. Voice phone: 202-691-5200; TDD message referral phone: 1-800-877-8339. Table 1. Number of jobs held by individuals from age 18 to 34 in 1978-98 by educational attainment, sex, race, Hispanic origin, and age Average number of jobs for persons age 18 to 34 in 1978-98 Characteristic Total(1) Age Age Age 18-24 15-29 30-34 Total............................ 9.2 5.6 3.0 2.4 Less than a high school diploma. 9.3 5.2 3.0 2.4 High school grad., no college... 8.7 5.2 2.8 2.4 Less than a bachelor's degree... 9.6 5.8 3.2 2.5 Bachelor's degree or more....... 9.7 6.3 3.0 2.4 Men.............................. 9.6 5.8 3.2 2.6 Less than a high school diploma.10.7 6.1 3.5 2.8 High school grad., no college... 9.1 5.5 3.1 2.5 Less than a bachelor's degree...10.0 6.0 3.4 2.6 Bachelor's degree or more....... 9.3 6.0 2.9 2.4 Women............................ 8.8 5.4 2.8 2.3 Less than a high school diploma. 7.4 4.0 2.2 2.0 High school grad., no college... 8.2 4.8 2.5 2.3 Less than a bachelor's degree... 9.2 5.6 3.0 2.4 Bachelor's degree or more.......10.1 6.6 3.1 2.3 White............................ 9.4 5.8 3.0 2.4 Less than a high school diploma. 9.8 5.6 3.1 2.6 High school grad., no college... 8.7 5.3 2.8 2.4 Less than a bachelor's degree... 9.9 6.0 3.2 2.5 Bachelor's degree or more....... 9.8 6.4 3.0 2.3 Black............................ 8.5 4.7 2.9 2.5 Less than a high school diploma. 8.0 3.9 2.7 2.2 High school grad., no college... 8.4 4.5 2.9 2.5 Less than a bachelor's degree... 8.5 5.0 2.9 2.4 Bachelor's degree or more....... 9.4 6.0 3.1 2.7 Hispanic origin.................. 8.7 5.0 2.9 2.4 Less than a high school diploma. 8.8 4.9 2.8 2.2 High school grad., no college... 8.6 5.0 2.8 2.4 Less than a bachelor's degree... 8.6 5.1 3.0 2.3 Bachelor's degree or more....... 8.9 5.3 2.7 2.6 1 Jobs that were held in more than one of the age categories were counted in each appropriate column, but only once in the total column. NOTE: The first two columns exclude individuals who turned age 18 before Jan. 1, 1978. The first and last columns exclude individuals who had not yet turned age 35 when interviewed in 1998. The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 consists of men and women who were born in the years 1957-64 and were age 14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979. These individuals were age 33 to 41 in 1998. Educational attainment is defined as of the 1998 survey. Race and Hispanic-origin groups are mutually exclusive. Totals include American Indians, Alaskan Natives, and Asian and Pacific Islanders, not shown separately. Table 2. Percent of weeks individuals were employed, unemployed, or not in the labor force from age 18 to 34 in 1978-98 by educational attainment, sex, race, and Hispanic origin Percent of total weeks while age 18 to 34 in 1978-98 Characteristic Not in the Employed Unemployed labor force Total, age 18 to 34 in 1978-98..... 75.2 5.4 18.8 Less than a high school diploma... 62.3 9.2 27.8 High school graduates, no college. 75.4 6.0 18.0 Less than a bachelor's degree..... 77.7 4.9 16.9 Bachelor's degree or more......... 79.3 2.9 17.5 Men................................ 82.5 6.0 10.9 Less than a high school diploma... 75.0 10.8 13.5 High school graduates, no college. 84.2 6.5 8.6 Less than a bachelor's degree..... 85.7 5.0 8.9 Bachelor's degree or more......... 81.3 3.1 15.2 Women.............................. 67.7 4.7 27.0 Less than a high school diploma... 44.3 7.0 48.1 High school graduates, no college. 66.0 5.4 28.1 Less than a bachelor's degree..... 71.0 4.7 23.6 Bachelor's degree or more......... 77.3 2.6 19.8 White.............................. 77.6 4.5 17.4 Less than a high school diploma... 66.5 8.4 24.4 High school graduates, no college. 78.5 4.9 16.0 Less than a bachelor's degree..... 79.4 3.9 16.2 Bachelor's degree or more......... 79.4 2.7 17.5 Black.............................. 64.7 10.2 24.4 Less than a high school diploma... 47.7 13.2 38.4 High school graduates, no college. 63.0 11.4 25.0 Less than a bachelor's degree..... 71.2 9.1 19.1 Bachelor's degree or more......... 78.0 4.7 16.8 Hispanic origin.................... 70.5 5.6 23.3 Less than a high school diploma... 59.9 8.0 31.4 High school graduates, no college. 70.5 5.7 23.1 Less than a bachelor's degree..... 76.1 4.3 19.0 Bachelor's degree or more......... 79.6 2.8 16.8 NOTE: This table excludes individuals who turned age 18 before Jan. 1, 1978, or who had not yet turned age 35 when interviewed in 1998. Totals do not add to 100 percent due to a small number of respondents whose employment status cannot be determined for all weeks. The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 consists of men and women who were born in the years 1957-64 and were age 14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979. These individuals were age 33 to 41 in 1998. Educational attain- ment is defined as of the 1998 survey. Race and Hispanic- origin groups are mutually exclusive. Totals include American Indians, Alaskan Natives, and Asian and Pacific Islanders, not shown separately. Table 3. Percent of weeks individuals were employed, unemployed, or not in the labor force from age 18 to 34 in 1978-98 by age, sex, race, and Hispanic origin Percent of total weeks Age and Characteristic Not in the Employed Unemployed labor force Total, age 18 to 34 in 1978-98(1). 75.2 5.4 18.8 Age 18 to 24 in 1978-89(2)...... 68.4 7.8 23.3 Age 25 to 29 in 1983-94......... 78.4 4.4 16.6 Age 30 to 34 in 1988-98(3)...... 79.6 3.7 16.2 Men, age 18 to 34 in 1978-98(1)... 82.5 6.0 10.9 Age 18 to 24 in 1978-89(2)...... 73.3 8.8 17.4 Age 25 to 29 in 1983-94......... 87.1 5.2 7.1 Age 30 to 34 in 1988-98(3)...... 88.4 4.0 6.9 Women, age 18 to 34 in 1978-98(1). 67.7 4.7 27.0 Age 18 to 24 in 1978-89(2)...... 63.3 6.8 29.6 Age 25 to 29 in 1983-94......... 69.4 3.7 26.4 Age 30 to 34 in 1988-98(3)...... 70.5 3.3 25.7 White, age 18 to 34 in 1978-98(1). 77.6 4.5 17.4 Age 18 to 24 in 1978-89(2)...... 71.3 6.8 21.5 Age 25 to 29 in 1983-94......... 80.7 3.6 15.2 Age 30 to 34 in 1988-98(3)...... 81.4 3.1 15.0 Black, age 18 to 34 in 1978-98(1). 64.7 10.2 24.4 Age 18 to 24 in 1978-89(2)...... 39.4 17.0 43.1 Age 25 to 29 in 1983-94......... 69.6 8.7 21.0 Age 30 to 34 in 1988-98(3)...... 71.3 7.0 20.9 Hispanic origin, age 18 to 34 in 1978-98(1).................... 70.5 5.6 23.3 Age 18 to 24 in 1978-89(2)...... 63.8 8.1 27.5 Age 25 to 29 in 1983-94......... 72.4 5.1 21.8 Age 30 to 34 in 1988-98(3)...... 75.6 3.9 19.5 1 This category excludes individuals who turned age 18 before Jan. 1, 1978, or who had not yet turned 35 when interviewed in 1998. 2 This category excludes individuals who turned age 18 before Jan. 1, 1978. 3 This category excludes individuals who had not yet turned age 35 when interviewed in 1998. NOTE: Totals do not add to 100 percent due to a small number of respondents whose employment status cannot be determined for all weeks. The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 consists of men and women who were born in the years 1957-64 and were age 14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979. These individuals were age 33 to 41 in 1998. Educational attainment is defined as of the 1998 survey. Race and Hispanic-origin groups are mutually exclusive. Totals include American American Indians, Alaskan Natives, and Asian and Pacific Islanders, not shown separately. Table 4. Percent of individuals age 18 to 34 in 1978-98 who reported at least one spell of unemployment by age, educational attainment, sex, race, and Hispanic origin Percent reporting at least one spell of unemployment Age and characteristic Total Men Women White Black Hispanic origin Age 18 to 34 in 1978-98(1).. 87.6 87.1 88.1 86.2 94.4 89.6 Less than a H.S. diploma... 93.0 95.5 89.4 92.1 96.1 93.2 High school grad., no coll. 86.9 86.0 87.8 85.1 94.5 91.6 Less than a bach. degree... 85.3 84.0 86.3 82.8 93.5 87.7 Bach. degree or more....... 88.3 86.6 89.9 88.2 93.7 78.2 Age 18 to 24 in 1978-89(2).. 81.4 81.6 81.1 79.9 88.9 81.7 Less than a H.S. diploma... 87.1 91.8 80.3 87.1 88.9 85.0 High school grad., no coll. 80.3 80.7 79.9 78.0 89.9 84.5 Less than a bach. degree... 80.2 78.7 81.4 78.2 88.2 78.3 Bach. degree or more....... 81.3 79.4 83.1 81.2 86.4 71.6 Age 25 to 29 in 1983-94..... 46.3 45.8 46.8 43.2 60.9 49.7 Less than a H.S. diploma... 59.5 62.2 55.8 56.3 71.0 58.2 High school grad., no coll. 48.3 48.2 48.3 44.6 63.8 51.1 Less than a bach. degree... 44.6 41.5 47.1 41.3 57.9 47.2 Bach. degree or more....... 38.0 35.9 40.1 37.7 42.5 33.9 Age 30 to 34 in 1988-98(3).. 35.4 35.3 35.5 32.7 48.9 38.4 Less than a H.S. diploma... 51.8 55.2 47.2 50.1 59.8 47.3 High school grad., no coll. 40.0 39.8 40.3 37.2 54.7 42.0 Less than a bach. degree... 32.5 30.6 34.0 29.9 43.3 33.2 Bach. degree or more....... 22.0 20.6 23.5 21.7 25.3 22.0 1 This category excludes individuals who turned age 18 before Jan. 1, 1978, or who had not yet turned age 35 when interviewed in 1998. 2 This category excludes individuals who turned age 18 before Jan. 1, 1978. 3 This category excludes individuals who had not yet turned age 35 when interviewed in 1998. NOTE: The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 consists of men and women who were born in the years 1957-64 and were age 14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979. These individuals were age 33 to 41 when interviewed in 1998. Educational attainment is defined as of the 1998 survey. Race and Hispanic-origin groups are mutually exclusive. Totals include American Indians, Alaskan Natives, and Asian and Pacific Islanders, not shown separately. Table 5. Number of unemployment spells experienced by individuals from age 18 to 34 in 1978-98 who reported at least one spell of unemployment by educational attainment, sex, race, and Hispanic origin Percent distribution Characteristic Average One Two Three number spell spells or more of spells spells Total, age 18 to 34 in 1978-98.. 5.1 15.2 14.5 70.3 Less than a H.S. diploma...... 6.7 8.4 9.1 82.5 High school grad., no college. 5.5 15.1 13.4 71.5 Less than a bach. degree...... 5.1 16.7 13.8 69.6 Bach. degree or more.......... 3.8 17.9 19.9 62.2 Men............................. 5.4 16.1 13.6 70.3 Less than a H.S. diploma...... 7.3 5.4 6.7 87.9 High school grad., no college. 5.7 15.8 13.2 71.0 Less than a bach. degree...... 5.1 20.7 12.6 66.7 Bach. degree or more.......... 3.8 19.8 19.9 60.2 Women........................... 4.9 14.4 15.3 70.3 Less than a H.S. diploma...... 5.8 12.9 12.7 74.4 High school grad., no college. 5.2 14.3 13.5 72.1 Less than a bach. degree...... 5.1 13.3 14.8 71.9 Bach. degree or more.......... 3.8 16.0 19.9 64.0 White........................... 5.3 16.9 11.7 71.4 Less than a H.S. diploma...... 6.4 13.1 8.0 79.0 High school grad., no college. 5.3 16.1 13.2 70.7 Less than a bach. degree...... 4.6 21.9 11.1 67.0 Bach. degree or more.......... 4.3 15.4 16.7 68.0 Black........................... 6.5 7.8 9.0 83.2 Less than a H.S. diploma...... 7.9 7.1 4.1 88.7 High school grad., no college. 6.8 6.1 8.6 85.3 Less than a bach. degree...... 6.1 8.8 9.7 81.5 Bach. degree or more.......... 4.5 12.2 15.6 72.2 Hispanic origin................. 4.8 16.6 15.8 67.6 Less than a H.S. diploma...... 6.4 8.0 10.8 81.2 High school grad., no college. 5.1 17.0 14.4 68.6 Less than a bach. degree...... 4.8 18.3 15.5 66.2 Bach. degree or more.......... 3.8 18.5 20.2 61.3 NOTE: This table excludes individuals who turned age 18 before Jan. 1, 1978, or who had not yet turned age 35 when interviewed in 1998. The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 consists of men and women who were born in the years 1957-64 and were age 14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979. These individuals were age 33 to 41 in 1998. Educational attainment is defined as of the 1998 survey. Race and Hispanic-origin groups are mutually exclusive. Totals include American Indians, Alaskan Natives, and and Asian and Pacific Islanders, not shown separately. Table 6. Number of unemployment spells experienced by individuals who reported at least one spell of unemployment from age 18 to 34 in 1978-98 by age, sex, race, and Hispanic origin Percent distribution Age and characteristic Average Three number of One Two or more spells spell spells spells Total, age 18 to 34 in 1978-98(1). 5.1 15.2 14.5 70.3 Age 18 to 24 in 1978-89(2)...... 3.5 22.6 20.3 57.1 Age 25 to 29 in 1983-94......... 2.2 44.5 24.5 31.0 Age 30 to 34 in 1988-98(3)...... 2.1 46.2 23.4 30.5 Men, age 18 to 34 in 1978-98(1)... 5.4 16.1 13.6 70.3 Age 18 to 24 in 1978-89(2)...... 3.6 22.0 19.2 58.8 Age 25 to 29 in 1983-94......... 2.5 39.9 24.1 36.0 Age 30 to 34 in 1988-98(3)...... 2.3 41.5 23.9 34.6 Women, age 18 to 34 in 1978-98(1). 4.9 14.4 15.3 70.3 Age 18 to 24 in 1978-89(2)...... 3.3 23.3 21.3 55.4 Age 25 to 29 in 1983-94......... 2.0 49.2 24.9 26.0 Age 30 to 34 in 1988-98(3)...... 2.0 50.9 22.9 26.2 White, age 18 to 34 in 1978-98(1). 5.3 16.9 11.7 71.4 Age 18 to 24 in 1978-89(2)...... 3.4 24.3 21.1 54.6 Age 25 to 29 in 1983-94......... 2.1 47.5 24.0 28.5 Age 30 to 34 in 1988-98(3)...... 2.1 48.1 22.3 29.6 Black, age 18 to 34 in 1978-98(1). 6.5 7.8 9.0 83.2 Age 18 to 24 in 1978-89(2)...... 4.0 15.1 16.2 68.8 Age 25 to 29 in 1983-94......... 2.5 34.9 25.6 39.5 Age 30 to 34 in 1988-98(3)...... 2.3 39.9 26.3 33.8 Hispanic origin, age 18 to 34 in 1978-98(1).................... 4.8 16.6 15.8 67.6 Age 18 to 24 in 1978-89(2)...... 3.6 22.0 18.9 59.0 Age 25 to 29 in 1983-94......... 2.3 39.0 27.8 33.3 Age 30 to 34 in 1988-98(3)...... 2.1 44.9 28.1 27.0 1 This category excludes individuals who turned age 18 before Jan. 1, 1978, or who had not yet turned age 35 when interviewed in 1998. 2 This category excludes individuals who turned age 18 before Jan. 1, 1978. 3 This category excludes individuals who had not yet turned age 35 when interviewed in 1998. NOTE: The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 consists of men and women who were born in the years 1957-64 and were age 14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979. These individuals were age 33 to 41 when interviewed in 1998. Educational attainment is defined as of the 1998 survey. Race and Hispanic-origin groups are mutually exclusive. Totals include American Indians, Alaskan Natives, and Asian and Pacific Islanders, not shown separately. Table 7. Average annual percent growth in real hourly earnings from 1978 to 1998 by educational attainment, sex, race, Hispanic origin, and age Average annual percent growth in hourly earnings Characteristic Age Age Age 18-24 25-29 30-34 Total............................... 6.6 4.0 2.4 Less than a high school diploma... 4.2 2.7 1.0 High school graduates, no college. 5.6 2.8 1.5 Less than a bachelor's degree..... 5.9 4.5 2.9 Bachelor's degree or more......... 9.9 6.0 4.1 Men................................. 6.9 4.2 2.4 Less than a high school diploma... 3.7 2.3 0.9 High school graduates, no college. 6.3 3.1 1.1 Less than a bachelor's degree..... 7.1 5.0 2.9 Bachelor's degree or more......... 9.5 6.8 4.8 Women............................... 6.3 3.6 2.4 Less than a high school diploma... 5.0 3.7 1.2 High school graduates, no college. 4.7 2.4 2.0 Less than a bachelor's degree..... 5.0 4.1 2.8 Bachelor's degree or more......... 10.3 5.1 3.2 White............................... 6.9 4.1 2.4 Less than a high school diploma... 5.0 2.9 1.5 High school graduates, no college. 5.6 2.9 1.3 Less than a bachelor's degree..... 6.1 4.7 2.8 Bachelor's degree or more......... 10.1 6.0 4.0 Black............................... 5.1 3.6 2.3 Less than a high school diploma... 2.4 2.3 0.1 High school graduates, no college. 5.1 2.9 2.0 Less than a bachelor's degree..... 5.0 3.9 2.4 Bachelor's degree or more......... 7.9 6.4 5.2 Hispanic origin..................... 5.8 3.0 2.6 Less than a high school diploma... 3.0 2.6 0.7 High school graduates, no college. 6.1 1.5 2.7 Less than a bachelor's degree..... 6.1 4.1 3.3 Bachelor's degree or more......... 9.6 5.8 3.8 NOTE: The first column excludes individuals who turned age 18 before 1978. The last column excludes individuals who were not yet age 35 when interviewed in 1998. The CPI-UX1 (research index) was used to deflate hourly earnings to 1998 dollars, prior to calculating the growth rates. The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 consists of men and women who were born in the years 1957-64 and were age 14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979. These individuals were age 33 to 41 in 1998. Educational attainment is defined as of the 1998 survey. Race and Hispanic-origin groups are mutually exclusive. Totals include American Indians, Alaskan Natives, and Asian and Pacific Islanders, not shown separately. Table 8. Percent of employed individuals who were promoted by their current employer from 1995 to 1997 by educational attainment, sex, race, and Hispanic origin Characteristic Percent who were promoted, 1995-97 Total........................................ 24.2 Less than a high school diploma............ 19.7 High school graduates, no college.......... 22.1 Less than a bachelor's degree.............. 23.9 Bachelor's degree or more.................. 30.2 Men.......................................... 25.6 Less than a high school diploma............ 19.4 High school graduates, no college.......... 21.4 Less than a bachelor's degree.............. 26.2 Bachelor's degree or more.................. 35.7 Women........................................ 22.7 Less than a high school diploma............ 20.3 High school graduates, no college.......... 22.9 Less than a bachelor's degree.............. 21.9 Bachelor's degree or more.................. 23.9 White........................................ 24.4 Less than a high school diploma............ 22.1 High school graduates, no college.......... 22.1 Less than a bachelor's degree.............. 22.6 Bachelor's degree or more.................. 30.2 Black........................................ 23.0 Less than a high school diploma............ 13.5 High school graduates, no college.......... 20.6 Less than a bachelor's degree.............. 28.7 Bachelor's degree or more.................. 30.0 Hispanic origin.............................. 23.8 Less than a high school diploma............ 15.8 High school graduates, no college.......... 26.2 Less than a bachelor's degree.............. 25.1 Bachelor's degree or more.................. 27.0 NOTE: Since 1994, respondents have been asked if they had been promoted by their current employer since they began working for that employer or since the last interview, whichever is more recent. These individuals were age 30 to 40 during the years 1995 to 1997. The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 consists of men and women who were born in the years 1957-64 and were age 14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979. These individuals were age 33 to 41 in 1998. Educational attainment is defined as of the 1998 survey. Race and Hispanic-origin groups are mutually exclusive. Totals include American Indians, Alaskan Natives, and Asian and Pacific Islanders, not shown separately.